Memória e envelhecimento: Qual o real impacto da idade?

Autores

  • Helena Espirito-Santo Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Psicossocial do Instituto Superior Miguel Torga (CCIPSO-ISMT); Centro de Investigação em Neuropsicologia e Intervenção Cognitiva e Comportamental (CINEICC), Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2625-3754
  • Inês Torres Pena Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, Coimbra, Portugal
  • Inês Queiroz Garcia Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, Coimbra, Portugal
  • Catarina Freitas Pires Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, Coimbra, Portugal https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8473-181X
  • Margarida Couto Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, Coimbra, Portugal https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8473-181X
  • Fernanda Daniel Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Psicossocial do Instituto Superior Miguel Torga (CCIPSO-ISMT); Centro de Estudos e Investigação em Saúde da Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2202-1123

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.7342/ismt.rpics.2016.2.2.40

Palavras-chave:

Envelhecimento, Memória, Institucionalização, Características sociodemográficas

Resumo

Contexto e Objetivos: O défice mnésico é uma das alterações cognitivas que mais afeta as pessoas idosas. A idade é considerada um dos fatores de relevo nas alterações de memória, inclusivamente pelas próprias pessoas idosas. A investigação tem mostrado que existem outros fatores além da idade que afetam a memória das pessoas idosas. Contudo, fica por esclarecer qual o real papel da idade sobre a memória quando é controlada a influência de outras variáveis. Assim, o presente estudo pretende analisar o impacto da idade no funcionamento mnésico de pessoas idosas e verificar se, ao controlar o papel de outras variáveis (sexo, escolaridade, profissão, situação civil, situação residencial e situação clínica), esse potencial impacto se mantém. Métodos: A amostra global foi constituída por 1126 participantes (283 homens e 843 mulheres; 226 residentes na comunidade e 900 em resposta social dirigida à população idosa) com idades compreendidas entre os 60 e os 100 anos. A avaliação foi realizada com recurso aos itens do Mini-Mental State Examination (memória de trabalho), o fator do Montreal Cognitive Assessment (memória declarativa verbal) e Figura Complexa de Rey-Osterrieth (memória visuoespacial). Resultados: Globalmente, a idade, escolaridade, profissão, situação civil, residencial e clínica influenciaram a memória de forma diferenciada consoante o tipo de memória. As análises de regressão hierárquica mostraram que a idade é um fator preditivo em todos os tipos de memória. Emergiram ainda outros fatores preditivos com coeficientes de regressão superiores à idade conforme o tipo de memória (exceto na memória de trabalho). Conclusões: A idade, a escolaridade e a profissão influenciam a memória, assim como os fatores que potencialmente estimulam cognitiva e socialmente (como ter um companheiro e residir na comunidade). Os resultados apontam para a importância de intervir em pessoas em respostas sociais, mais idosas, sem companheiro, com baixa escolaridade e profissão manual.

Downloads

Não há dados estatísticos.

Referências

Bäckman, L., Small, B. J., Wahlin, Å., & Larsson, M. (2000). Cognitive functioning in very old age. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (2nd ed., pp. 499-558). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [Google Scholar]

Baldivia, B., Andrade, V. M., & Bueno, O. F. A. B. (2008). Contribution of education, occupation and cognitively stimulating activities to the formation of cognitive reserve. Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 2(3), 173-182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Bangen, K. J., Jack, A. J., Schiehser, D. M., Delano-Wood, L., Tuminello, E., Han, S. D., . . . Bondi, M. W. (2010). Complex activities of daily living vary by mild cognitive impairment subtype. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(4), 630-639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Bartrés-Faz, D., Junqué, C., López-Alomar, A., Valveny, N., Moral, P., Casamayor, R., . . . Clemente, I. C. (2001). Neuropsychological and genetic differences between age-associated memory impairment and mild cognitive impairment entities. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 49(7), 985-990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Bennett, D. A., Schneider, J. A., Buchman, A. S., Barnes, L. L., Boyle, P. A., & Wilson, R. S. (2012). Overview and findings from the Rush Memory and Aging Project. Current Alzheimer Research, 9(6), 646-663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Bickel, H., & Cooper, B. (1994). Incidence and relative risk of dementia in an urban elderly population: Findings of a prospective field-study. Psychological Medicine, 24(1), 179-192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Boone, K. B., Lesser, I. M., Hill-Gutierrez, E., Berman, N. G., & D’Elia, L. F. (1993). Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure performance in healthy, older adults: Relationship to age education, sex and IQ. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 7(1), 22-28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Buchner, A., Erdfelder, E., Faul, F., & Lang, A. G. (2014). G*Power 3 (Version 3.1.9.2 for Macintosh) [Computer software]. Düsseldorf: Heinrich-Heine-Universität Dusseldorf [Google Scholar] [URL]

Casanova-Sotolongo, P., Casanova-Carrillo, P., & Casanova-Carrillo, C. (2004). La memoria. Introducción al estudio de los trastornos cognitivos en el envejecimiento normal y patológico [Memory. An introduction to the study of the cognitive disorders in normal and pathological aging. Revista de Neurología, 38(5), 469-472. [Google Scholar] [URL]

Chang, A. (2013). StatsToDo (Sample size for estimating a single alpha program) (online calculator). Brisbane, Queensland, Austrália. [Google Scholar] [URL]

Chen, T., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2012). Assessing the associative deficit of older adults in long-term and short-term/working memory. Psychology and Aging, 27(3), 666-682. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Cherkin, A. (1968). Kinetics of memory consolidation: Role of amnesic treatment parameters. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United. States of America, 63(4), 1094-1101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Comijs, H. C., Kriegsman, D. M. W., Dik, M. G., Deeg, D. J. H., Jonker, C., & Stalman, W. A. B. (2009). Somatic chronic diseases and 6-year change in cognitive functioning among older persons. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 48(2), 10-1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Conroy, R. M., Golden, J., Jeffares, I., O' Neill, D., & McGee, H. (2010). Boredom-proneness, loneliness, social engagement and depression and their association with cognitive function in older people: A population study. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 15(4), 463-473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Cowan, N., Elliott, E. M., Scott Saults, J., Morey, C. C., Mattox, S., Hismjatullina, A., & Conway, A. R. A. (2005). On the capacity of attention: Its estimation and its role in working memory and cognitive aptitudes. Cognitive Psychology, 51(1), 42-100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Craik, F. I. M. (1994). Memory changes in normal aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3(5), 155-158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Crook, T., Bartus, R. T., Ferris, S. H., Whitehouse, P., Cohen, G. D., & Gershon, S. (1986). Age‐associated memory impairment: Proposed diagnostic criteria and measures of clinical change — report of a national institute of mental health work group. Developmental Neuropsychology, 2(4), 261-276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Dansilio, S., & Charamelo, A. (2005). Constructional functions and figure copying in illiterates or low-schooled Hispanics. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(8), 1105-1112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Delis, D. C., & Kramer, J. H. (2000). Advances in neuropsychological assessment of memory disorders. In F. Boller & J. Grafman (Eds.), Handbook of neuropsychology (2nd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 25-47). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. [Google Scholar]

Duro, D., Simões, M. R., Ponciano, E., & Santana, I. (2010). Validation studies of the Portuguese experimental version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): Confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Neurology, 257(5), 728-734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Elias, M. F., Elias, P. K., D’Agostino, R. B., Silbershatz, H., & Wolf, P. A. (1997). Role of age, education, and gender on cognitive performance in the Framingham Heart Study: Community-based norms. Experimental Aging Research, 23(3), 201-235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Espirito-Santo, H., & Daniel, F. (2015). Calcular e apresentar tamanhos do efeito em trabalhos científicos (1): As limitações do p < 0,05 na análise de diferenças de médias de dois grupos - Folha de cálculo suplementar [Calculating and reporting effect sizes on scientific papers (1): p < 0.05 limitations in the analysis of mean differences of two groups – Supplemental worksheet]. Revista Portuguesa de Investigação Comportamental e Social, 1(1), 3-16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Fastame, M. C., Hitchcott, P. K., Penna, M. P., & Murino, G. (2016). Does institutionalization influence perceived metamemory, psychological well-being, and working-memory efficiency in Italian elders? A preliminary study. Journal of Clinical Gerontology and Geriatrics, 7(1), 6-11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175-191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). Mini-mental state”. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189-198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Fratiglioni, L., Wang, H. X., Ericsson, K., Maytan, M., & Winblad, B. (2000). Influence of social network on occurrence of dementia: A community-based longitudinal study. The Lancet, 355, 1315-1319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Gallagher, C., & Burke, T. (2007). Age, gender and IQ effects on the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46(1), 35-45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Ghisletta, P., Bickel, J. F., & Lövdén, M. (2006). Does activity engagement protect against cognitive decline in old age? Methodological and analytical considerations. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61(5), 253-261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Giogkaraki, E., Michaelides, M. P., & Constantinidou, F. (2013). The role of cognitive reserve in cognitive aging: Results from the neurocognitive study on aging. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35(10), 1024-1035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Gold, P. E., & McGaugh, J. L. (1975). A single-trace, two-process view of memory storage processes. In D. Deutsch & J. A. Deutsch (Eds.), Short-term memory (pp. 355–378). New York: Academic Press. [Google Scholar]

Gordo, S. M. O. (2015). Estudio del funcionamiento ejecutivo y de las actividades de la vida diaria en ancianos en función del ámbito de residencia habitual [Study of executive functioning and activities of daily life in older people according to the context of habitual residence] (Doctoral dissertation). [Google Scholar] [Handle]

Guerreiro, M. (2010). Testes de rastreio de defeito cognitivo e demência: Uma perspectiva prática [Screening tests for cognitive impairment and dementia: A practical perspetive]. Revista Portuguesa de Clínica Geral, 26(1), 46-53. [Google Scholar] [URL]

Guerreiro, M., Silva, A. P., Botelho, M. A., Leitão, O., Castro-Caldas, A., & Garcia, C. (1994). Adaptação à população portuguesa da tradução do “Mini-Mental State Examination” (MMSE) [Adaptation to the Portuguese population of the translation of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)]. Revista Portuguesa de Neurologia, 1, 9-10. [Google Scholar]

Håkansson, K., Rovio, S., Helkala, E. L., Vilska, A. R., Winblad, B., Soininen, H., . . . Kivipelto, M. (2009). Association between mid-life marital status and cognitive function in later life: Population based cohort study. BMJ, 339(99), 1-8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Hänninen, T., Hallikainen, M., Koivisto, K., Helkala, E. L., Reinikainen, K. J., Soininen, H., . . . Riekkinen, P. J. Sr. (1995). A follow‐up study of age‐associated memory impairment: Neuropsychological predictors of dementia. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43(9), 1007-1015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Hassing, L. B., Hofer, S. M., Nilsson, S. E., Berg, S., Pedersen, N. L., McClearn, G., & Johansson, B. (2004). Comorbid type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension exacerbates cognitive decline: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Age and Ageing, 33(4), 355-361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Herlitz, A., & Rehnman, J. (2008). Sex differences in episodic memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(1), 52-56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Herlitz, A., Nilsson, L. G., & Bäckman, L. (1997). Gender differences in episodic memory. Memory & Cognition, 25(6), 801-811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Hertzog, C., Kramer, A. F., Wilson, R. S., & Lindenberger, U. (2008). Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development: Can the functional capacity of older adults be preserved and enhanced. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(1), 1-65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Howieson, D. B., Holm, L. A., Kaye, J. A., Oken, B. S., & Howieson, J. (1993). Neurologic function in the optimally healthy oldest old: Neuropsychological evaluation. Neurology, 43(10), 1882-1886. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Hultsch, D. F., Hertzog, C., Small, B. J., & Dixon, R. A. (1999). Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychology and Aging, 14(2), 245-263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Hultsch, D. F., Hertzog, C., Small, B. J., McDonald-Miszczak, L., & Dixon, R. A. (1992). Short-term longitudinal change in cognitive performance in later life. Psychology and Aging, 7(4), 571-584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Huppert, F., Johnson, T., & Nickson, J. (2000). High prevalence of prospective memory impairment in the elderly and in early-stage dementia: Findings from a population-based study. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14(7), 63-81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Jonker, C., Geerlings, M. I., & Schmand, B. (2000). Are memory complaints predictive for dementia? A review of clinical and population-based studies. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15(11), 983-991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Kim, H. Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics, 38(1), 52-54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Koivisto, K., Reinikainen, K. J., Hänninen, T., Vanhanen, M., Helkala, E. L., Mykkänen, L., . . . Riekkinen, P. J. Sr. (1995). Prevalence of age-associated memory impairment in a randomly selected population from eastern Finland. Neurology, 45(4), 741-747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Kral, V. A. (1962). Senescent forgetfulness: Benign and malignant. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 86(6), 257-260. [Google Scholar] [PMC]

Larrabee, G. J., Levin, H. S., & High, W. M. (1986). Senescent forgetfulness: A quantitative study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 2(4), 373-385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Biegler, E. D., & Tranel, D. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]

Lobo, A., Saz, P., Marcos, G., Día, J. L., de la Cámara, C., Ventura, T., . . . Aznar, S. (1999). Revalidation and standardization of the cognition mini-exam (first Spanish version of the Mini-Mental Status Examination) in the general geriatric population. Medicina Clínica, 112(20), 767-774. [Google Scholar]

Lövdén, M., Ghisletta, P., & Lindenberger, U. (2005). Social participation attenuates decline in perceptual speed in old and very old age. Psychology and Aging, 20(3), 423-434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Lövdén, M., Rönnlund, M., Wahlin, Å., Bäckman, L., Nyberg, L., & Nilsson, L. G. (2004). The extent of stability and change in episodic and semantic memory in old age: Demographic predictors of level and change. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 59(3), 130-134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Maroof, D. A. (2012). Statistical methods in neuropsychology: Common procedures made comprehensible. Boston, MA: Springer. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

May, A. (2011). Experience-dependent structural plasticity in the adult human brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(10), 475-482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Maylor, E. A., Reimers, S., Choi, J., Collaer, M. L., Peters, M., & Silverman, I. (2007). Gender and sexual orientation differences in cognition across adulthood: Age is kinder to women than to men regardless of sexual orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(2), 235-249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Mega, M. S., Small, G. W., Xu, M. L., Felix, J., Manese, M., Tran, N. P., . . . Toga, A. W. (2002). Hippocampal atrophy in persons with age-associated memory impairment: Volumetry within a common space. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64(3), 487-492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Meinz, E. J., & Salthouse, T. A. (1998). Is age kinder to females than to males. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5(3), 56-70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Meyers, J. E., & Meyers, K. R. (1995). Rey Complex Figure Test and Recognition Trial: Professional manual. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. [Google Scholar]

Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., . . . Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 695-699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Naveh-Benjamin, M., Maddox, G. B., Jones, P., Old, S., & Kilb, A. (2012). The effects of emotional arousal and gender on the associative memory deficit of older adults. Memory & Cognition, 40(4), 551-566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Nielsen, H., Lolk, A., & Kragh-Sørensen, P. (1998). Age-associated memory impairment--pathological memory decline or normal aging? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 39(1), 33-37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Nyberg, L., Maitland, S. B., Rönnlund, M., Bäckman, L., Dixon, R. A., Wahlin, Å., & Nilsson, L. G. (2003). Selective adult age differences in an age-invariant multifactor model of declarative memory. Psychology and Aging, 18(1), 149-160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Old, S., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2008). Memory for people and their actions: Further evidence for an age-related associative deficit. Psychology and Aging, 23(2), 467-472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Osterrieth, P. A. (1944). Le test de copie d’une figure complexe, contribution à l’étude de la perception et de la mémoire [Test of copying a complex figure; contribution to the study of perception and memory]. Archives de Psychologie, 30, 206-356. [Google Scholar]

Pallant, J. (2011). SPSS Survival Manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS for Windows (4th ed.). Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. [Google Scholar]

Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 173-196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Park, D. C., Lautenschlager, G., Hedden, T., Davidson, N. S., Smith, A. D., & Smith, P. K. (2002). Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 17(2), 299-320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Parnetti, L., Lowenthal, D. T., Presciutti, O., Pelliccioli, G. P., Palumbo, R., Gobbi, G., Chiarini, P., Palumbo, B., Tarducci, R., Senin, U. (1996). 1H-MRS, MRI-based hippocampal volumetry, and 99mTc-HMPAO-SPECT in normal aging, age-associated memory impairment, and probable Alzheimer's Disease. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 44(2), 133-138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Pascual-Millán, L. F., Fernández, T., Saz, P., Lobo, A., & Morales-Asín, F. (2000). Exploración de la memoria de trabajo con el miniexamen cognoscitivo [Working memory assessment with mini-mental state examination]. Revista de Neurologia, 30(1), 1-4. [Google Scholar] [URL]

Pauls, F., Petermann, F., & Lepach, A. C. (2013). Gender differences in episodic memory and visual working memory including the effects of age. Memory, 21(7), 857-874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Pena, I. T. (2014). Funcionamiento neuropsicológico y emocional en el envejecimiento. Estudio comparativo entre ancianos institucionalizados y no institucionalizados [Neuropsychological and emotional functioning in aging. Comparative study between institutionalized and non-institutionalized older people] (Doctoral dissertation). [Google Scholar] [Handle]

Peterson, R. A. (1994). A meta-analysis of Cronbach's coefficient alpha. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(2), 381-391. [Google Scholar] [JSTOR]

Plassman. B. L., Williams, J. W., Burke, J. R., Holsinger, T., & Benjamin, S. (2010). Systematic review: Factors associated with risk for and possible prevention of cognitive decline in later life. Annals of Internal Medicine, 153(3), 182-193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Potter, G. G., Helms, M. J., & Plassman, B. L. (2008). Associations of job demands and intelligence with cognitive performance among men in late life. Neurology, 70(19, Part 2), 1803-1808. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Reed, B. R., Mungas, D., Farias, S. T., Harvey, D., Beckett, L., Widaman, K., . . . DeCarli, C. (2010). Measuring cognitive reserve based on the decomposition of episodic memory variance. Brain, 133(8), 2196-2209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Rey, A. (1941). L’examen psychologique dans les cas d’encéphalopathie traumatique. (Les problems) [The psychological examination in cases of traumatic encepholopathy Problems]. Archives de Psychologie, 28, 215-285. [Google Scholar]

Rey, A. (2002). Rey: Teste de cópia de figuras complexas [Rey: Complex figures copy test] (2nd ed.). Lisboa: CEGOC-TEA. [Google Scholar]

Rönnlund, M., Nyberg, L., Bäckman, L., & Nilsson, L. G. (2005). Stability, growth, and decline in adult life span development of declarative memory: Cross-sectional and longitudinal data from a population-based study. Psychology and Aging, 20(1), 3-18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Rosselli, M., & Ardila, A. (1991). Effect of age, education, and gender on the Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure. Clinical Neuropsychology, 5(4), 370-376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Rosselli, M., & Ardila, A. (2003). The impact of culture and education on non-verbal neuropsychological measurements: A critical review. Brain and Cognition, 52(3), 326-333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Rubin, E. H., Storandt, M., Miller, J. P., Kinscherf, D. A., Grant, E. A., Morris, J. C., & Berg, L. (1998). A prospective study of cognitive function and onset of dementia in cognitively healthy elders. Archives of Neurology, 55(3), 395-401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Salthouse, T. A. (2003). Interrelations of aging, knowledge, and cognitive performance. In U. M. Staudinger & U. Lindenberger (Eds.), Understanding human development: Dialogues with lifespan psychology (pp. 265-287). Berlin: Kluwer Academic Publishers. [Google Scholar]

Schacter, D. L. (2012). Constructive memory: Past and future. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 14(1), 7-18. [Google Scholar] [PMC]

Schneeweis, N., Skirbekk, V., & Winter-Ebmer, R. (2014). Does education improve cognitive performance four decades after school completion? Demography, 51(2), 619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Shankar, A., Hamer, M., McMunn, A., & Steptoe, A. (2013). Social isolation and loneliness: Relationships with cognitive function during 4 years of follow-up in the English longitudinal study of ageing. Psychosomatic Medicine, 75(2), 161-170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Shigemori, K., Ohgi, S., Okuyama, E., Shimura, T., & Schneider, E. (2010). The factorial structure of the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) in Japanese dementia patients. BMC Geriatrics, 10(1), 36-42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Slavin, M. J., Brodaty, H., Kochan, N. A., Crawford, J. D., Trollor, J. N., Draper, B., & Sachdev, P. S. (2010). Prevalence and predictors of “subjective cognitive complaints” in the Sydney memory and ageing study. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(8), 701-710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Soininen, H. S., Partanen, K., Pitkänen, A., Vainio, P., Hänninen, T., Hallikainen, M., . . . Riekkinen, P. J. (1994). Volumetric MRI analysis of the amygdala and the hippocampus in subjects with age-associated memory impairment: Correlation to visual and verbal memory. Neurology, 44(9), 1660-1668. [Google Scholar]

Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological Reviews, 99(3), 195-231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Strauss, E., Sherman, E., & Spreen, O. (2006). A Compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]

Tombaugh, T. N., & McIntyre, N. J. (1992). The Mini‐Mental State Examination: A comprehensive review. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 40(9), 922-935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Tucker-Drob, E. M., Johnson, K. E., & Jones, R. N. (2009). The cognitive reserve hypothesis: A longitudinal examination of age-associated declines in reasoning and processing speed. Developmental Psychology, 45(2), 431-446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of memory (pp. 381-403). New York: Academic Press. [Google Scholar]

Tulving, E. (1995). Organization of memory: Quo vadis? In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences (pp. 839-847). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [Google Scholar]

Tulving, E., & Craik, F. I. M. (2000). The Oxford handbook of memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]

Winocur, G. (1982). Learning and memory deficits in institutionalized and noninstitutionalized old people: An analysis of interference effects. In F. l. M. Craik & S. Trehub (Eds.), Aging and cognitive processes (pp. 155-181). New York: Plenum Press. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

World Medical Association. (2013). WMA Declaration of Helsinki - Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. [Google Scholar] [URL]

Zahodne, L. B., Glymour, M. M., Sparks, C., Bontempo, D., Dixon, R. A., MacDonald, S. W. S., & Manly, J. J. (2011). Education does not slow cognitive decline with aging: 12-Year evidence from the Victoria longitudinal study. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 17(6), 1039-1046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Zandi, T. (2004). Relationship between subjective memory complaints, objective memory performance, and depression among older adults. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias, 19(6), 353-360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Publicado

30-09-2016

Como Citar

Espirito-Santo, H., Pena, I. T., Garcia, I. Q., Pires, C. F., Couto, M., & Daniel, F. (2016). Memória e envelhecimento: Qual o real impacto da idade?. Revista Portuguesa De Investigação Comportamental E Social, 2(2), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.7342/ismt.rpics.2016.2.2.40

Edição

Secção

Artigo Original

Artigos mais lidos do(s) mesmo(s) autor(es)

1 2 3 > >> 

Artigos Similares

Também poderá iniciar uma pesquisa avançada de similaridade para este artigo.